Brief History of Prisons, Foucault's Discipline and Why Alcatraz Never Worked

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Up until the 17th century, prisoners were incarcerated in general for debt. In those days, in Britain at least, the idea of incarceration had not yet occurred to whatever as a particularly smart idea because the usual sentence for those found guilty of crimes was death. Then, in 1615, Thomas More's "Utopia" recommend a proposal for imprisonment as an alternative.

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At this time, about half the prisons were conspiratorially owned and rented out to sub-contractors. Newgate prison in London, for instance, dating from as early as 1130, was a commercial enterprise administered by a "warden".

In 1682, the Duke of York, later to become James Ii of England, handed over a large chunk of his American holdings to William Penn. This land included the present-day Pennsylvania. On hearing the news, Penn sailed to America and the colonists pledged allegiance to him as their new proprietor after he had journeyed upriver and founded the Province of Pennsylvania. Under his direction, the city of Philadelphia was planned and developed.

At that time, Philadelphia had become the epicentre of prison reform worldwide. Penn was a Quaker and had been incarcerated in England for his beliefs, so he abolished the Duke of York's "criminal code", and repealed the death penalty for all crimes except murder, and instead punished individuals with imprisonment and hard labour.

However, Quakers were not known for their progressive liberalism, and the law also called for severe penalties for sexual offences such as "defiling the marriage bed", whatever one believes that to mean. This was punishable by whipping plus a year's sentence for the first offence, then life imprisonment for the second.

Anyway, the first American Penitentiary, which consisted only of cell blocks, was constructed by the name of the Walnut street Jail (incidentally, the use of the word "penitentiary" comes from the Pennsylvania Quakers and their confidence in self-examination and penitence as a way to salvation). Not by defilement, either. The jail's building was completed at the end of the 18th century, transforming it into the first American Penitentiary.

At that time, Benjamin Franklin, Benjamin Rush and others organised a movement to reform the harsh penal code. The new law supplanted collective labour for the old severe punishments. Reaction against the collective display of convicts on the streets and the "disgraceful conditions" in the Walnut street jail led to the formation of the Philadelphia Society. The next year, it presented to the state legislature an inventory of their investigations into prison conditions and recommended solitary confinement and hard labour as a "remedy" and reformative strategy.

But it was Michel Foucault who wrote about the eighteenth century as the age that brought about techniques of discipline and examination, rather as the Middle Ages plan about judicial investigation. This, he said, was an authoritarian gismo for the "search for truth", where sovereign powers arrogated themselves the right to design these so-called "truths" to best administer "justice" by a number of regulatory techniques.

It wasn't humanism that changed things, it was the call of eighteenth-century reformers to not take revenge and, as such, during this period, crimes seemed to lose their violence while punishments lost some of their intensity.

By then, society had shifted from one that punished the "criminality of blood" to the "criminality of fraud", which formed a whole new involved mechanism that placed a higher "moral value" on property. The authorities therefore instituted much stricter methods of surveillance, a tighter partitioning of the citizen and more effective techniques of locating and obtaining information. In the 21st century, this has accelerated to alarming proportions.

In effect, in its apparent justification to "rectify" the mechanisms of discipline that characterise jail, was to get at the question of comprehension the criminal mind behind the criminal act and to administer punishment that was corrective; a therapy to normalise, measure, assess, diagnose, cure and transform individuals.

In those days in France, the Ministry of the Colonies is quoted as saying: "Beyond this distribution of roles operates a theoretical disavowal: do not imagine that the sentences that we judges pass are activated by a desire to punish; they are intended to correct, reclaim, cure..." society and prison now differ only in degree, where self-discipline is the appropriate norm, even when applied to the mildest of transgressions.

At Alcatraz, inmates ended up at the Rock because they refused to play by the rules set out for them in other federal penitentiaries. After stepping off the boat, prisoners were greeted by a team of corrections officers who explained the accurate regulations of the prison. For example, in the early years, prisoners were only permitted to talk to one another during weekend recreation time.

A set of custom Regulations was issued to the inmates who were required to keep it in their cells at all times, which included the advice for clemency which required they should show best than mean good escort and good work records for some years at the custom and that loafing, loitering, visiting, or unauthorised absence from work would supervene in disciplinary action, and may supervene in loss of the inmate's job, and withholding of, or forfeiture of, good time.

Foucault also argued that a "carceral continuum" runs straight through contemporary society, from the maximum safety prison, straight through gain accommodation, probation, collective workers, police, and teachers, to our daily working and domestic lives. All are linked by the supervision, surveillance, application of norms of appropriate behaviour of some humans by others.

It has to be said that society is being increasingly controlled but it is actually a examine of results. The results of the prison principles very rarely coincide with the aim, and the objective of correctional prisons such as Alcatraz, America's premier maximum-security prison and the final stop for the nation's most incorrigible inmates, and that of imprisonment itself as a means of "improving the individual", has never been achieved.

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